The International Dyslexia Association defines dyslexia as a specific learning disability of neurobiological origin that is characterized by difficulty with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and poor spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language development in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction. Dyslexia is also related to problems with reading comprehension that can impede development of vocabulary and related background knowledge.[9]
Examples of these issues can be problems speaking in full sentences, problems correctly articulating Rs and Ls as well as Ms and Ns, mixing up sounds in multi-syllabic words (ex: aminal for animal, bisghetti for spaghetti, hekalopter for helicopter, hangaberg for hamburger, ageen for magazine, etc.), problems of immature speech "wed and gween" instead of "red and green".
The characteristics of dyslexia have been identified mainly from research in languages with alphabetic writing systems, primarily English. However, many of these characteristic may be transferable to other types of writing systems.
The causes of dyslexia are not agreed upon, although the consensus of neuroscientists believe dyslexia is a phonological processing disorder and that dyslexics have reading difficulties. Dyslexia is not thought to be a result of a single cause and there is support for a multiple deficits view. Although classic theories of dyslexia suggest that phonological processing difficulties related to dyslexia cause reading difficulties, more recent theorists have identified multiple interacting deficits. Reading difficulties related to dyslexia are thought to be due to the inability to see or hear a word, break it down to discrete sounds, and then associate each sound with letter/s that make up the word.[8] Some researchers believe that a subset of dyslexics have visual deficits in addition to deficits in phoneme processing, but this view is not universally accepted. Contrary to popular belief, dyslexic people "see" words just as people who don't have the learning. It is a phonological issue with the manipulation of language and not seeing language. Therefore, this learning disability is more of an auditory processing issue. These students need time to break up words and decode them which can make them slower readers and slower to comprehend material. Moreover, dyslexic students tend to spell words phonetically.[12]
Although, most commonly identified as disorder related to reading and writing, dyslexia is associated with many other comorbidities. People affected by dyslexia have anxiety and their general mental health are comparable in people with and without dyslexia.[10]
Video Characteristics of dyslexia
Listening, speech and language
Some shared symptoms of the speech or hearing deficits and dyslexia:
- Confusion with before/after, right/left, and so on
- Difficulty learning the alphabet
- Difficulty with word retrieval or naming problems
- Difficulty identifying or generating rhyming words, or counting syllables in words (phonological awareness)
- Difficulty with hearing and manipulating sounds in words (phonemic awareness)
- Difficulty distinguishing different sounds in words (auditory discrimination)
- Difficulty in learning the sounds of letters (In alphabetic writing systems)
- Difficulty associating individual words with their correct meanings
- Difficulty with time keeping and concept of time
- Confusion with combinations of words
- Difficulty in organization skills
The identification of these factors results from the study of patterns across many clinical observations of dyslexic children. In the UK, Thomas Richard Miles was important in such work and his observations led him to develop the Bangor Dyslexia Diagnostic Test.
Auditory symptoms of dyslexia are most evident when repeating speech sounds, especially when repeating pseudowords, which relies on auditory speech processing skills to decode linguistic input. Other auditory symptoms include poor auditory speech perception skills and/or poorly defined phonemic representations, including confusions between speech sounds differing by a single phonetic feature.
Visual symptoms of dyslexia include early reading errors involving visually similar graphemes. This is most noticeable in visually complex words which suggests people with dyslexia have difficulty processing spatial information. Moreover, reading is slow, laborious, and cognitively inefficient and remains so even after sufficient experience. Reading is based on letter-by-letter decoding, with no whole-word reading. Later errors reflect the use of strategies to speed up reading and ease cognitive load. Working memory is often impaired. Several studies also suggest dyslexia involves visual deficits specifically related to rapid information, low contrast information, and movement.
Sequencing symptoms of dyslexia arise from a deficit in the maturation of systems implicated in processing the succession of events in time. These errors involve inversions of all types of information and can be demonstrated at an elementary level of processing.
Maps Characteristics of dyslexia
Reading and spelling
Studies show that children with dyslexia and those without tend to write at the same speed. Dyslexic students tend to write less and also pause more usually between words. The variations in handwriting wasn't due to motor skills. Student with the learning disability write slower if they are not familiar with a word. Some of the most common issues dyslexics face with regards to reading and spelling include:[13]
- Spelling errors -- Because of difficulty learning letter-sound correspondences, individuals with dyslexia might tend to misspell words, or leave vowels out of words.
- Letter order - People with dyslexia may also reverse the order of two letters especially when the final, incorrect, word looks similar to the intended word (e.g., spelling "dose" instead of "does").
- Letter addition/subtraction - People with dyslexia may perceive a word with letters added, subtracted, or repeated. This can lead to confusion between two words containing most of the same letters.
- Highly phoneticized spelling - People with dyslexia also commonly spell words inconsistently, but in a highly phonetic form such as writing "shud" for "should". Dyslexic individuals also typically have difficulty distinguishing among homophones such as "their" and "there".
- Vocabulary - Having a small written vocabulary, even if they have a large spoken vocabulary.
Writing and motor skills
Because of literacy problems, an individual with dyslexia may have difficulty with handwriting. This can involve slower writing speed than average, poor handwriting characterised by irregularly formed letters, or inability to write straight on a blank paper with no guideline.
Some studies have also reported gross motor difficulties in dyslexia, including motor skills disorder. This difficulty is indicated by clumsiness and poor coordination. The relationship between motor skills and reading difficulties is poorly understood but could be linked to the role of the cerebellum and inner ear in the development of reading and motor abilities.
Adaptive attributes
A study has found that entrepreneurs are five times more likely to be dyslexic than average citizens.
Evidence based on randomly selected populations of children indicate that dyslexia affects boys and girls equally; that dyslexia is diagnosed more frequently in boys appears to be the result of sampling bias in school-identified sample populations.
In the United States, researchers estimate the prevalence of dyslexia to range from three to ten percent of school-aged children though some have put the figure as high as 17 percent. Recent studies indicate that dyslexia is particularly prevalent among small business owners, with roughly 20 to 35 percent of US and British entrepreneurs being affected.
Comorbidities
Other developmental disorders have been noted for people with dyslexia including the following:
Developmental Dysphasia (oral expressive and/or receptive language delay and difficulties)
Developmental Dyspraxia (a developmental coordination disorder that is often related to balance issues and difficulty tying shoes.) Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) ( affects attention and behavior which can make learning difficult)
Affective disorders causing dyslexic children to have low self-esteem and leading to motivational problems, depression, and anxiety
Dyscalculia (a developmental disability that affects mathematics learning and a deficit in working memory). It should be noted that individuals with dyslexia can be gifted in mathematics while having poor reading skills. They might have difficulty with word processing problems (e.g. descriptive mathematics, engineering or physics problems that rely on written text rather than numbers or formulas). Moreover, dyslexic children may have lower arithmetic efficiency (verbal number skills), however, there may be no significant difference between those with and those without dyslexia in relation to nonverbal number tasks. Additionally, those affected with dyslexia tend to have higher levels of mathematics anxiety than those without the learning disability.[10]
Developmental Gerstmann Syndrome (a constellation of four symptoms; dysgraphia, dyscalculia, finger agnosia, and left-right disorientation)
Intellectual giftedness [8]
References
8. Carroll, J. M., Solity, J. and Shapiro, L. R. (2016), Predicting dyslexia using
prereading skills: the role of sensorimotor and cognitive abilities. J Child Psychol Psychiatr, 57: 750-758. doi:10.1111/jcpp.12488
9. Davis, Ronald Dell. (1992) 37 Common Characteristics of Dyslexia. Retrieved
November 27, 2017 from Davis Dyslexia Association International. Dyslexia the Gift website: http://www.dyslexia.com/?p=254.
10. Jordan, J., McGladdery, G., & Dyer, K. (2014). Dyslexia in Higher Education:
Implications for Maths Anxiety, Statistics Anxiety and Psychological Well-being. Dyslexia, 20(3), 225-240.
11. Koerte, I., Willems, K., Muehlmann, A., Moll, M., Cornell, K., Pixner, S., . . .
Schulte-Körne, E. (2016). Mathematical abilities in dyslexic children: A diffusion tensor imaging study. Brain Imaging and Behavior, 10(3), 781-791.
12. Sandman, k. (2017, December). What is dyslexia? [Video file]. Retrieved from https://ed.ted.com/lessons/what-is-dyslexia-kelli-sandman-hurley
13. Sumner, E., Connelly, V., & Barnett, A. L. (2014). The influence of spelling ability
on handwriting production: Children with and without dyslexia. Journal Of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, And Cognition, 40(5), 1441-1447. doi:10.1037/a0035785
External links
- The International Dyslexia Association
Source of the article : Wikipedia
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